Lung
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The 'lung 'is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their principal function is to transport oxygenfrom the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to releasecarbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases is accomplished in the mosaic of specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli.
To completely explain the anatomy of the lungs, it is necessary to discuss the passage of air through the mouth to the alveoli. Once air progresses through the mouth or nose, it travels through the oropharynx, nasopharynx, thelarynx, the trachea, and a progressively subdividing system of bronchi and bronchioles until it finally reaches the alveoliwhere the gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygentakes place.[2]
The drawing and expulsion of air (ventilation) is driven bymuscular action; in early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, whereas in reptiles, birds and mammals a more complicated musculoskeletal system is used.
Medical terms related to the lung often begin with pulmo-, such as in the (adjectival form: pulmonary) or from the Latinpulmonarius ("of the lungs"), or with pneumo-
[edit]Mammalian lungs
Further information: Human lung
The lungs of mammals have a spongy and soft texture and are honeycombed with epithelium, having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are a typical example of this type of lung.
Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward, increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure, causing air to flow into the airways. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the pharynx, then the larynx and into the trachea, which branches out into the main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During normal breathing, expiration is passive and no muscles are contracted (the diaphragm relaxes). The rib cage itself is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is transported into or expelled out of the lungs. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows.[3]
[edit]Anatomy
In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles. The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to alveolar sacs. Alveolar sacs are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual grapes within a bunch. The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in blood vessels and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation.
Human lungs are located in two cavities on either side of the heart. Though similar in appearance, the two are not identical. Both are separated into lobes by fissures, with three lobes on the right and two on the left. The lobes are further divided into segments and then into lobules, hexagonal divisions of the lungs that are the smallest subdivision visible to the naked eye. The connective tissue that divides lobules is often blackened in smokers. The medial border of the right lung is nearly vertical, while the left lung contains a cardiac notch. The cardiac notch is a concave impression molded to accommodate the shape of the heart.
Each lobe is surrounded by a pleural cavity, which consists of two pleurae. The parietal pleura lies against the rib cage, and the visceral pleura lies on the surface of the lungs. In between the pleura is pleural fluid. The pleural cavity helps the lubricate the lungs, as well as providing surface tension to keep the lung surface in contact with the rib cage.
Lungs are to a certain extent 'overbuilt' and have a tremendous reserve volume as compared to the oxygen exchange requirements when at rest. Such excess capacity is one of the reasons that individuals can smoke for years without having a noticeable decrease in lung function while still or moving slowly; in situations like these only a small portion of the lungs are actually perfused with blood for gas exchange. Destruction of too many alveoli over time leads to the condition emphysema, which is associated with extreme shortness of breath. As oxygen requirements increase due toexercise, a greater volume of the lungs is perfused, allowing the body to match its CO2/O2 exchange requirements. Additionally, due to the excess capacity, it is possible for humans to live with only one lung, with the other compensating for its loss.
The environment of the lung is very moist, which makes it hospitable for bacteria. Many respiratory illnesses are the result of bacterial or viral infection of the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs is known aspneumonia; inflammation of the pleura surrounding the lungs is known as pleurisy.
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that a person can exhale after maximum inhalation; it can be measured with a spirometer. In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease.
The lung parenchyma is strictly used to refer solely to alveolar tissue with respiratory bronchioles,alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles.[4] However, it often includes any form of lung tissue, also including bronchioles, bronchi, blood vessels and lung interstitium.[4]
[edit]Non respiratory functions
In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs also:
- Alter the pH of blood by facilitating alterations in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
- Filter out small blood clots formed in veins
- Filter out gas micro-bubbles occurring in the venous blood stream such as those created afterscuba diving during decompression.[5]
- Influence the concentration of some biologic substances and drugs used in medicine in blood
- Convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II by the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme
- May serve as a layer of soft, shock-absorbent protection for the heart, which the lungs flank and nearly enclose.
- Immunoglobulin-A is secreted in the bronchial secretion and protects against respiratory infections.
- Maintain sterility by producing mucus containing antimicrobial compounds.[6] Mucus containsglycoproteins, e.g. mucins, lactoferrin,[7] lysozyme, lactoperoxidase.[8][9] We find also on the epithelium Dual oxidase 2[10][11][12] proteins generating hydrogen peroxide, useful forhypothiocyanite endogenous antimicrobial synthesis. Function not in place in cystic fibrosispatient lungs.[13][14]
- Ciliary escalator action is an important defence system against air-borne infection.The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucous layer present at the mucosal surface of respiratory passages and are moved up towards pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia.
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